Cahokia Mounds

Visiting Cahokia was a new experience for me. I grew up in the American Southwest with Anasazi ruins in the canyons, on the mesas and literally in the backyard of my childhood home. Ancient pottery could be found abundantly on the desert floor, and occasionally an arrowhead. They pecked out images on rocks of big horned sheep and divine figures.
 
Cahokia, on the other hand, was on a lush marshland near the Mississippi River. Nothing above the surface now exists to prove their existence, other than several dozen mounds covered in grass. Some are large while others a mere lift in the ground.
 

Human effigy pipe.

Yet a grand civilization once existed here. In it's prime, archeologists surmise that Cahokia was the largest settlement in the Americas north of Mexico, with estimates ranging from 5,000 to 40,000 inhabitants. It became a central hub, which once covered nearly six square miles.
 
Cahokia is located east of modern-day St. Louis, in the state of Illinois. The skyline of the Gateway City can be seen from the top of Monks Mound. Jenelle and I took a detour from our trip and spent a couple hours poking around the site.
 
So, who were the Cahokian people? They were part of the Mississippian Culture, which is a catch-all term to include several societies with similar behavior and beliefs along the Mississippi River. Some of these behaviors included the building of platform mounds around a central plaza. 
 

Monks Mound.

By far the most imposing earthwork at Cahokia is Monks Mound. The base covers an area of over 14 acres and it is 100 feet high. Nearly 22 million cubic feet of dirt make up the mound, and it is conjectured that they were carried in baskets. Construction of the mound began around 950 AD and was enlarged several times until roughly 1250 AD.
 
Excavations of the upper level show evidence of a structure. Archeologists believe this probably served as a temple, and a residence for the chief leader. This interpretation is aided by historical accounts of the Natchez, who are the cultural heirs of the Mississippians.
 

Looking south from Monks mound.

Also of interest is an account of Hernanado de Soto, probably the first European to venture into this area. Sometime between 1539 and 1547, he visited several towns and villages of Native Americans. Although Cahokia was no longer functioning, many of their traditions may have continued. De Soto's men spoke of Indian villages dominated by man-made hills.
 
He records: “Then on top of these places they construct flat surfaces which are capable of holding ten, twelve, fifteen or twenty dwellings of the lord and his family and the people of his service, who vary according to the power and grandeur of the state.”
 

Profile view of Monks Mound.

Monks Mound was not—as far as we know—a burial mound.  Only small portions have been excavated. That's not to say, however, that it hasn't been used from time to time to bury the dead.
 
In the 1730's a group of French missionaries built a chapel on the west end of the mound. Several of them were buried near the chapel. A century later Amos Hill built his farm on the third terrace of the mound. He is buried on the northwest corner of the fourth terrace.
 
It is called Monks Mound because a group of French Trappist Monks lived on a nearby mound from 1809 to 1813 and used “Monks Mound” to plant gardens and grow fruit trees.
 

Mound 72.

Certainly not the most eye-catching earthwork at Cahokia, but probably the most fascinating is Mound 72. To the untrained eye, Mound 72 appears to be nothing more than a small rise in the ground. Yet excavations have proved it to be a mass burial site. Located less than a mile south of Monks Mound, it was created in stages and contains several “sub” mounds which were eventually covered over to create a single heap.
 
Roughly 272 people have been interred at Mound 72, many of the bodies mutilated. One pit within the mound contains the remains of 24 women. Another portion includes the bodies of four young men laid out, arms interlocking, with the hands and skulls cut off. Another pit near the four men holds the skeletons of 53 women between the ages of 15 and 30, most showing evidence of strangulation. They are stacked in two layers, separated by matting.
 

One of the "Twin Mounds."

Yet another pit within Mound 72 contains the corpses of 39 men and women, all of whom succumbed to a violent death. Fractured skulls and jawsbones, decapitations and arrowheads in the back all point toward a malicious end. Some, it is speculated, were buried alive, as their hands and bodies are postured in such a manner that appears they are trying to crawl out of the pit. Atop this pit are 15 elites, laid on litters of cedar poles and cane matting.
 
Also buried in Mound 72 is another elite personage now known as the Birdman. He was laid on an elevated platform with his feet facing northwest, resting on a bed of over 20,000 marine-shell disc beads in the shape of a falcon. Below him was another man buried face-down. The Birdman was buried with an extensive collection of minerals, arrowheads, a copper-covered chunkey stick, and several chunkey stones. Chunkey was a game played by the Cahokian people. These grave-goods had been collected from a variety of places across the eastern United States.
 

Tablet of a Birdman, found during excavations at Monks Mound.

From what I understand, about two-thirds of Mound 72 has been excavated and that is how we know so much. The bodies were found under ground-level. The dirt above ground-level served as a monument. Although all the excavated dirt was replaced to resemble the original mound, all the bodies have been removed and are at a museum or University somewhere in Illinois. (All this was according to a professor there giving college students a tour. I find it interesting that if you were to do the same thing as a private citizen, you would be facing jail time and labeled as a grave-robber.)
 
Our visit to Cahokia lasted a couple hours, but I could have spent much longer had we not needed to catch an afternoon flight. There are several more mounds on the site, as well as walking trails. The museum is very helpful, recreating many scenes of what Cahokia may have looked like during its prime. Many artifacts are on display, including pottery and several effigies.
 

Artist's recreation of Cahokia, with "Woodhenge" in the foreground.

Cahokia began to decline around 1250 to 1300 AD. There is a great deal of speculation and mystery surrounding their disappearance. Did they over-exploit their resources? Was there conflict from within, or without? Could disease have decimated the population? Whatever the reason, within a couple hundred years, Cahokia was a ghost town.
 
For me, this comes full circle. The Anasazi disappeared around the exact same time. There is also a great deal of mystery associated with their disappearance. Most likely, they left because of drought. By the time the first Europeans arrived in the southwest, their dwellings upon the cliffs were also nothing more than ghost towns. ♠

St. Louis, Missouri as seen from the top of Monks Mound.

Snake Gulch

In 1881 the Orderville United Order, a cooperative company north of Kanab, operated an alfalfa farm near the head of Snake Gulch.  There are many relics from that era, some obvious and others subtle: remains of an old stone home, a corral, and a faint inscription made in grease or tar dating 1889.

Further down-canyon is a more ancient mystery.  Hundreds of ghost-like figures are painted on the walls.  Additionally, dozens of big-horned sheep and stick-figures of men are pecked into the rock.  Who were these people, when did they live here and why did they leave?

Most of the figures are of a divine nature and are painted in red, yellow or both.  They feature ceremonial dress, many of them similar.  Who were they trying to portray in their paintings?  What were their ceremonial dances and songs?

Archeologists surmise that these images were painted by people of the Basketmaker culture between the years 1,500 BC and AD 500.  Perhaps they were Anasazi.  There are a handful of crumbled granaries throughout the canyon.  Was there only one group that lived here, or were there several over the years?  How long did they live here?

Some of the pictographs are conspicuously high on the canyon walls, much higher than arm can reach.  How did they paint them?  What did they use to create their paint?  Did they use ladders to reach those great heights, or was there once a ledge?

The only serpent we saw on our 12-mile hike was a black king snake with white rings.  We passed a small group of cowboys on horses and who had seen two rattlers.  We were always on our toes.  Between the tall green grass and spirits of the dead looming the canyon, you can never be too careful in a place called Snake Gulch. ♠

Lambing Season

I witnessed something today that I hadn't ever seen before—the birth of a lamb.
 
A friend of ours obliged to take us on a tour of the local university farm. It was a family ordeal, and I was there with my wife and three daughters.
 
We were shown where and how the cows are artificially inseminated. We learned that some bulls don't have horns. We were shown the indoor arena where students can ride horses, and the tack barn where the saddles, bridles and other equine equipment are stored.
 
Then came the sheep.
 

Expecting ewe with sagging water bag and swollen udder.

Inside a large pen we noticed an ewe with what appeared to be a sagging red balloon coming from her hind-side. It was clearly full of liquid and about ready to pop. Another smaller sack protruded just above it. Chad (our guide) noted that this mother was about to give birth.
 
“How soon?” we asked.
 
“It could be anytime soon, or as late as this evening.”
 
As for us, we were hoping it was “anytime soon” and the sooner, the better!
 
Instantly we were all excited. For once in our lives we were at the right place at the right time!
 
For the next twenty minutes we watched the ewe fidget back and forth and paw the ground. Chad told us that when the time comes she will lay down, which will help her to push out the baby.
 
We continued to watch the mother sheep, but she never laid down. Once she bent to her knees and we were excited that “this was it,” but it was a false alarm and she soon returned to her feet.

“Maybe she can't perform when she's being watched,” I suggested.
 
“Maybe she has stage fright,” Jenelle added.
 

Another cute lamb.

We decided to leave her alone for a while. We walked to another pen nearby and spent a quarter of an hour there, watching other sheep which were of a different fold. Chad was still busy filling us with all sorts of information on sheep, but most of my focus was on taking pictures.
 
When we returned to the pen with the expecting dam, I will admit that I wasn't expecting much. I knew the kind of luck I had, and with my luck there would be no new baby lamb for another four hours—long after we were gone.
 
We found the ewe in the same spot and still with a sack of water sagging from her bright pink vulva. But now, upon closer examination, we spotted a newly-born baby lamb at her feet. We had just missed it!
 

Mother with newly-born lamb.  Lamb #2 will be born in about 20 minutes.

The animal appeared like a black blob, lying limp on the manure-littered dirt. The weakling propped up his head and the mother meticulously licked off the blood and slime.
 
Usually lambs are born in two's. But often the gap between births can last a couple hours. That would be too long for us. We were a little disappointed.
 
We watched as the mother continued to lick clean her lamb. It was like getting a sponge bath. From the slime and blood emerged a clean white face.
 
Other sheep looked on in curiosity. One came over and nosed the yeanling. Soon the lamb was making his first attempts to stand, but was still too weak.
 

Licking clean lamb #1.  If you look closely you can see a black foot starting to come out.

Still licking lamb #1 while lamb #2 is being born.

Ready or not, here he comes!

Then we saw something exciting. Something black was now emerging from the vulva of the ewe. That must be a leg! We watched in curiosity as the black object grew and soon it became obvious that it was two hind legs and a set of hips.
 
It is interesting that the ewe never laid down to birth her second lamb. Not only did she remain standing, but she continued to lick the first one clean during the whole process.
 
Not long after the exit of the legs and hips (kicking as he came), the entire baby lamb plopped to the ground. Encased in amniotic fluid the newly born sheep laid there helpless, but Mother came to the rescue, licking him clean also.
 

Baby lamb plops to the ground encased in amniotic fluid.

Mother takes the first look at her baby.

Immediately she begins licking him clean, too.

The spectacle attracts onlookers.

Lamb #1 stands on all-fours for the first time, in less than 30 minutes after his birth.

Onlooker offers his nose for a friendly nudge.

It is fascinating how fast animals adopt to their new environment. Not long after his twin brother was born, lamb #1 was standing on his own four feet, a bit wobbly, but as clean as a whistle.
 
After having witnessed such an incredible event, we all felt satisfied. I had always wanted to witness the birth of an animal. I remember watching the movie Black Beauty several years ago and recalling the scene in the barn when the horse is born. Whether it is a farm animal or a human being, there is something divine about watching a new creature come into the world.
 
As for the twins, they are in good company. They share birthdays with Warren Spahn, Shirley Temple, and of course . . . William Shakespeare! ♠

Lambs are not the only young ones at the farm: a mare with her foal.

Ojo Verde

Dust billowed behind our truck on the road to the green spring. Evening primrose, sagebrush and June grass flourished in the desert, benefiting from a wetter-than-normal spring. We twisted through the valley over a bump-filled road and steep sandy hills.
 
Our journey brought us to a destination seldom visited by anyone. We parked on a slickrock flat and walked down a sandy wash, past cryptobiotic soil, purple flowers and red-blooming cactus.
 
At last we arrived at a shallow canyon nestled between slickrock hills on both sides. A deep and treacherous gully of sand has managed to cut its way through the middle, making passage to the other side nearly impossible. From the banks of the gulley to the base of the slickrock hills grow an abundance of sagebrush and other wild weeds.
 

Looking over Ojo Verde.

This is Ojo Verde, or the green spring as translated from Spanish. It has been a watering hole by many over the years. Just who were the first Europeans to discover it is a mystery that will probably be forever unknown, but the oldest well-documented visit of the site comes from the Macomb Expedition, who camped here in 1859. The Old Spanish Trail, just ten miles away, had been used for years by many people. The historic use of this trail is obscure at best.
 
Referring to the Old Spanish Trail, Macomb stated that it had not been accurately laid down upon any map. He then adds: “This trail is much talked of as have being the route of commerce between California and Mexico in the days of the old Spanish rule.”
 
I came with my dad and a couple of his friends. There are only a select few that even know that Ojo Verde exists, let alone the location. Paul, who's now walking on feeble legs and caring for a wife with Alzheimer's, was our trusty guide. He knows more about the history of San Juan County than almost anyone else.
 
I suppose there is also an element of speculation as to the exact location of Ojo Verde. Knowledge has been lost over the years, and there are no inscriptions that directly link this spot with the Macomb group. But if our location was off, it wasn't off by far. And there is absolutely no doubt that this spot has been used by cowboys for over a hundred years.
 

Inscription at Ojo Verde.

Old photo of inscriptions near Ojo Verde. Dates from 1902 and 1894.

Ojo Verde lies in a draw of slickrock, about 600 feet from one side to the other. Within the draw there is vegetation for livestock and at one time, supposedly, there was a small lake. Just where the lake was located I don't know. It has long since washed away. Along the west side is an alcove where the explorers and cowboys likely cooked meals and set up camp. Now it is littered with antique debris and a few growths of poison ivy. Along the cliff walls are a few inscriptions. The first time I came here I found one written in charcoal dated 1902 with a small sketch of a cowboy. Another more faint was dated July 27, 1894. For some reason I was unable to locate those same inscriptions this time.
 
The remnants of what appear to be the walls of a cabin are still standing. There are also the posts of what may have been a corral. As I mentioned before, a huge gulley has been carved through the middle of the draw, making it nearly impossible to cross to the other side. I believe the site has been greatly disfigured by Mother Nature from how it appeared two centuries ago.
 

John N. Macomb.

The Macomb Expedition, officially known as the San Juan Exploring Expedition, of 1859 came in the wake of the Utah War, a period of intense conflict and suspicion between the Federal Government and Mormons of the Utah Territory. During this period came the tragedy of the Mountain Meadows Massacre and also the march of Johnston's Army into the Salt Lake Valley where they established Camp Williams.
 
John N. Macomb led a group of men from Santa Fé, New Mexico with primarily a two-fold purpose: 1) To find a new supply route to the Salt Lake Valley via a pathway near the confluence of the Green and Colorado (then known as the Grand) Rivers, and 2) To conduct scientific studies and surveys along the way.
 
It is interesting that just two days before arriving at Ojo Verde, Dr. John S. Newberry, a scientist and physician in the group, discovered massive fossilized dinosaur bones high on a cliff-face near East Canyon. The discovery was the first of its kind. On their return trip they excavated the bones and hauled them to Santa Fé on the backs of mules. Today the partial skeleton is in the paleontology collection of the Smithsonian Institution.
 

Casa Colorado on the Old Spanish Trail. Sketch by Charles H. Dimmock.

A few miles down the trail the group came to a large sandstone butte with intricately carved alcoves on the southern side. It is called Casa Colorado, or Colored House, and was a landmark on the Old Spanish Trail. Some of the large stone basins in the expansive slickrock created good watering holes for those passing by. Macomb and his group appreciated the aesthetic appeal of the rock and halted to explore and sketch pictures of it.
 
Up to this point the group had followed the Old Spanish Trail, but it was now time to divert and head west toward the confluence of the Green and Colorado Rivers. A group of men were sent west to scout for a suitable location to set up camp. They found a location ten miles away—Ojo Verde.
 
At Ojo Verde Macomb set up a base camp from which they would set out to explore the region near the confluence. On August 20, 1859, Newberry wrote in his diary the following: “Scouts report good camp 10 miles west. Cross dry barren country to Ojo Verde, a beautiful green bottomed cañon with steep rocky banks—fine spring—good grass.—Encamp in heavy rain.”
 
Charles Dimmock, another member who kept a valuable journal, gives no description in his record. He only states, “Reached camp—El Ojo Verde—in the midst of one of the hardest rains in the region.” Ojo Verde also became known as Camp No. 28.
 
The next day was spent in camp waiting for the advance scouts who were sent ahead “to see the practicability of the trail to the junction of Grand [Colorado] & Green Rivers . . .” They returned on the 21st and declared “the trail as utterly impracticable for our packs.” They did not reach the confluence.
 

Remnants of what may have been an old cabin.

It was determined that a small group, which included Macomb, Dimmock, Newberry, two Mexican cooks and a few others would make the trek toward the confluence the following day. They made their preparations and retired to bed early “in view of the fatigues ahead.”
 
To summarize, the group spent the next two days riding into the area now known as Canyonlands National Park. They “passed between walls varying in height from 800 to 1200 ft. eroded into all imaginable curves, shapes & fancies.” They plodded along modern Indian Creek, crossing it 270 times. “The banks of the stream vary from ten to fifteen feet in height & are so perpendicular that when our mules slide down we cling by the cantle of the saddle to avoid going over their heads.”
 
When they could go no further they decided to climb a mesa to gain a better view. “Starting with our usual clothing the intolerable heat & difficulties of ascent soon forced us to shed by degrees article after article, until at last the summit was reached & exultingly stood upon, by three men stripped to shirts, draws & boots.”
 
Of the view from the top, Charles Dimmock recorded: “All our labor found its reward, when on looking around there met our eyes such a view as is not to be seen anywhere else on earth. But few, if any other whites, were ever the beholders of so magical a variety of towering sierra-like mesas, deep cut canyons, penetrating in all directions, into whose depths the rays of the sun at midday can only fall. In the distance—to the south—the mesas, broken into isolated pinnacles & clustered, castled, summits gave the effect of a grander city than dream land contains. The colors varying from the darkest brown of the old red sandstone pass through the changes of richest tone to chocolate light.”
 
In spite of the grand view, the trip to the top of the hill only confirmed that any possible route to the confluence would be impossible. The group assumed they were just two miles from the confluence, but modern historians now conclude they were just over eight. The worn-out group now retraced their steps back to Camp No. 28.
 

Alcove littered with antique debris.

They arrived again at Ojo Verde on August 24, “glad as possible to get safely back, having happily met with no Indians. All at camp greeted with cheerful smiles & congratulations whose influences tended very materially to aid digestion at supper.”
 
The San Juan Exploring Expedition spent the next two days camped at Ojo Verde. The first of the two days they were met with a group of Sheberetch Utes, also known as Elk Mountain Utes. This band of Indians lived in the area of the La Sal Mountains, near present-day Moab. There is a mystery that surrounds them because around the year 1872 they seemed to disappear. No one knows for sure what happened to them, but some speculate that a scourge killed many and the remainder migrated to the Uintah Reservation where they integrated with the Northern Utes.
 
On August 25, 1859, Charles Dimmock recorded the encounter in his diary: “At bed time, last night, the sentinel stopped, at the mouth of the cañon, a party of 18 Utes, headed by the father of the Indian who had acted as guide to the Grand River. It was thought advisable to make the Indians camp at the mouth of the cañon & allow them to come in the morning. . . Presents made the Utes which they think to be hardly their due.” Adding to the commentary, Newberry wrote the following on the same day: “Their insolence & importunity dissatisfaction with the presents given them.—The heaps of tobacco given them by other Americans.”
 

Macomb's group may have taken shelter from rain under this overhang.

Thursday, August 26 brought heavy rainfall at Ojo Verde. The crew likely took shelter in the overhang of the canyon. They had hoped to pack up and move to their next camp, but rain persisted until 1 pm, making it too late to leave.
 
Of the weather Dimmock wrote: “Rain nearly all night—ceasing before breakfast. We had our tables placed out doors, when just as our seats were taken the big drops began to rattle a roll-call on our tin plates & cups. Thanks, however, to India rubber coats we got quite comfortable through, though an infusion of rain water does not improve tea nor wetting add to the credibility of biscuit.”
 
By evening the sky cleared and they engaged in horse-racing, presumably with the Indians as it is a popular sport among the Northern Utes. I am curious to know where and how far they raced. There doesn't seem to be sufficient room within the walls of Ojo Verde and most of the terrain nearby is not flat.
 

Sketch of a sheep horn by Charles Dimmock.

Also on this day Charles Dimmock made a sketch of a “Horn of the Rocky Mountain Sheep” at “El Ojo Verde, Utah Territory.” He remarked that the horn's outer curve measured 30 inches.  

We spent a couple hours at Ojo Verde just poking around and seeing what we could find. There are remnants of a cabin, as well as an old corral. We found a lot of bullet casings, including a .44 Winchester, which was introduced in 1873. My dad found two horseshoes and Lloyd discovered the handle to a frying pan.—We also came across a rusty shovel and old square-cut nails.

Sometime—probably decades after the Macomb group camped there—Ojo Verde and it's vicinity became the site of the Hatch Ranch. I will admit that I know nothing of this history and have accepted the challenge to figure it out.
 

It was now time for us to go. Paul had to get back to his wife in Monticello, and Lloyd was about to run out of gas, so we had to follow him—just-in-case.
 
Now in sweltering heat we walked over dirt and slickrock out of the draw and up-hill toward the vehicles. Desert Primrose blossomed above the sand. In the distance, snow lingered on remote mountain peaks. ♠ 

 



Source for historical information, photo and sketches of Macomb Expedition:

Madsen, Steven K. Exploring Desert Stone. Utah State University, 2010.